Analysis of Strategies for Reducing Multiple Emissions from Electric Power Plants with Advanced Technology Scenarios
Chapter Footnotes
Executive Summary
1 Energy Information Administration, Analysis of Strategies for Reducing Multiple Emissions from Electric Power Plants: Sulfur Dioxide, Nitrogen Oxides, Carbon Dioxide, and Mercury and a Renewable Portfolio Standard, SR/OIAF/2001-03 (Washington, DC, July 2001), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/epp/index.html. (Return to Executive Summary)
2 Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 2001, DOE/EIA-0383(2001) (Washington, DC, December 2000), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/index.html. (Return to Executive Summary)
3 Interlaboratory Working Group, Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future, ORNL/CON-476 and LBNL-44029 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, November 2000), web site www.ornl.gov/ORNL/ Energy_Eff/CEFOnep.pdf. (Return to Executive Summary)
4 At this time, limits on emissions from cogeneration are not represented. (Return to Executive Summary)
5 For this study, the potential for worldwide technology improvements in oil production was not addressed. (Return to Executive Summary)
6 CEF estimated the research and development funding, plus program implementation, administrative, and incremental technology investment costs. Comparing those costs with reductions in energy expenditures, CEF concluded there would be a net saving. The present analysis does not estimate the costs of the CEF policies. (Return to Executive Summary)
7 H. Jacoby, “The Uses and Misuses of Technology Development as a Component of Climate Change Policy,” presentation to the America Council for Capital Formation, Center for Policy Research (October 1998). (Return to Executive Summary)
Introduction
1 Energy Information Administration, Analysis of Strategies for Reducing Multiple Emissions from Power Plants: Sulfur Dioxide, Nitrogen Oxides, and Carbon Dioxide, SR/OIAF/2000-05 (Washington, DC, December 2000), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/powerplants/index.html. (Return to Introduction)
2 Energy Information Administration, Analysis of Strategies for Reducing Multiple Emissions from Electric Power Plants: Sulfur Dioxide, Nitrogen Oxides, Carbon Dioxide, and Mercury and a Renewable Portfolio Standard, SR/OIAF/2001-03 (Washington, DC, July 2001), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/epp/index.html. (Return to Introduction)
3 Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 2001, DOE/EIA-0383(2001) (Washington, DC, December 2000), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/index.html. (Return to Introduction)
4 Energy Information Administration, The National Energy Modeling System: An Overview 2000, DOE/EIA-0581(2000) (Washington, DC, March 2000), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/overview/index.html. (Return to Introduction)
5 Interlaboratory Working Group, Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future, ORNL/CON-476 and LBNL-44029 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, November 2000), web site www.ornl.gov/ORNL/ Energy_Eff/CEFOnep.pdf. (Return to Introduction)
6 President George W. Bush, National Energy Policy: Report of the National Energy Policy Development Group (Washington, DC, May 2001). (Return to Introduction)
7 For an analysis of the potential impacts of different emission allowance approaches, see D. Burtraw, K. Palmer, R. Bharvirkar, and A. Paul, The Effect of Allowance Allocation on the Cost of Carbon Emission Trading (Washington, DC: Resources for the Future, August 2001); and C. Fischer, Rebating Environmental Policy Revenues: Output-Based Allocations and Tradable Performance Standards (Washington, DC: Resources for the Future, July 2001). For an analysis of the impacts of a generation performance standard, see Energy Information Administration, Power Plant Emissions Reductions Using a Generation Performance Standard (Washington, DC, May 2001), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/gps/gpsstudy.html. (Return to Introduction)
8 Energy Information Administration, Analysis of the Impacts of an Early Start for Compliance with the Kyoto Protocol, SR/OIAF/99-02 (Washington, DC, July 1999), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/kyoto3/kyoto3rpt.html. (Return to Introduction)
9 Y.H. Wan and B.K. Parsons, Factors Relevant to Utility Integration of Intermittent Renewable Technologies, NREL/TP-463-4953 (Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, August 1993). (Return to Introduction)
10 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Emissions Standards Division, Information Collection Request for Electric Utility Steam Generating Units, Mercury Emissions Collection Effort (Research Triangle Park, NC, 1999). (Return to Introduction)
11 Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 1999, DOE/EIA-0383(99) (Washington, DC, December 1998), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/archive/aeo99/homepage.html. (Return to Introduction)
12 Interlaboratory Working Group, Scenarios of U.S. Carbon Reductions: Potential Impacts of Energy-Efficient and Low-Carbon Technologies by 2010 and Beyond, ORNL/CON-444 and LBNL-40533 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, September 1997), web site www.ornl.gov/ORNL/Energy_Eff/labweb.htm. (Return to Introduction)
13 CEF estimated the research and development funding, plus program implementation, administrative, and incremental technology investment costs. Comparing those costs with reductions in energy expenditures, CEF concluded there would be a net saving. The present analysis does not estimate the costs of the CEF policies. (Return to Introduction)
14 Major uses of electricity include space heating, space cooling, water heating, refrigeration, cooking, and lighting in the residential sector. All of these uses plus ventilation and office equipment are specifically identified as end uses in the commercial sector. Miscellaneous uses include all other end uses. (Return to Introduction)
15 H. Jacoby, “The Uses and Misuses of Technology Development as a Component of Climate Change Policy,” presentation to the America Council for Capital Formation, Center for Policy Research (October 1998). (Return to Introduction)
16 Energy Information Administration, U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Sources: 2000 Flash Estimate (Washington, DC, June 2001), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/flash/sld001.htm. (Return to Introduction)
17 In CEF, policies for encouraging industrial cogeneration, or combined heat and power, were analyzed outside of CEF-NEMS and were not included in the integrated analysis or results.(Return to Introduction)
Analysis of Strategies with AEO2001 Technology Assumptions
18 Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 2001, DOE/EIA-0383(2001) (Washington, DC, December 2000), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/index.html. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with AEO2001 Technology Assumptions)
19 Interlaboratory Working Group, Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future, ORNL/CON-476 and LBNL-44029 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, November 2000), web site www.ornl.gov/ORNL/ Energy_Eff/CEFOnep.pdf. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with AEO2001 Technology Assumptions)
20 At this time, emissions limits on cogenerators are not represented. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with AEO2001 Technology Assumptions)
21 See web site www.epa.gov/airmarkets/arp/. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with AEO2001 Technology Assumptions)
22 Unconventional natural gas includes low-permeability or tight sandstones, natural gas shales, and coalbed methane. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with AEO2001 Technology Assumptions)
23 Total industrial output includes oil and gas production, coal mining, and refining. Consequently, the value of total industrial output may increase in the cases with emissions limits. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with AEO2001 Technology Assumptions)
24 Energy Information Administration, Assumptions to the Annual Energy Outlook 2001, DOE/EIA-0554(2001)(Washington, DC, December 2001), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/fore_pub.html. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with AEO2001 Technology Assumptions)
25 Buildings: Energy Information Administration (EIA), Technology Forecast Updates—Residential and Commercial Building Technologies (Arthur D. Little, Inc., September 1998) and EIA, Technology Forecast Updates—Residential and Commercial Building Technologies—Advanced Adoption Case (Arthur D. Little, Inc., September 1998). Industrial: EIA, Aggressive Technology Strategy for the NEMS Model (Arthur D. Little, Inc., September 1998). Transportation: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Scenarios of U.S. Carbon Reductions: Potential Impacts of Energy Technologies by 2010 and Beyond, ORNL/CON-444 (Washington, DC, September 1997); Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Office of Transportation Technologies, OTT Program Analysis Methodology: Quality Metrics 2000 (November 1998); J. DeCicco and M. Ross, An Updated Assessment of the Near-Term Potential for Improving Automotive Fuel Economy (Washington, DC: American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, November 1993); and F. Stodolsky, A. Vyas, and R. Cuenca, Heavy and Medium Duty Truck Fuel Economy and Market Penetration Analysis, Draft Report (Chicago, IL: Argonne National Laboratory, August 1999). (Return to Analysis of Strategies with AEO2001 Technology Assumptions)
26 Fossil-fired generating technologies: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy. Renewable Generating Technologies: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, and Electric Power Research Institute, Renewable Energy Technology Characterizations, EPRI-TR-109496 (Washington, DC, December 1997). (Return to Analysis of Strategies with AEO2001 Technology Assumptions)
27 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, and Electric Power Research Institute, Renewable Energy Technology Characterizations, EPRI-TR-109496 (Washington, DC, December 1997). (Return to Analysis of Strategies with AEO2001 Technology Assumptions)
28 For this study, the potential for worldwide technology improvements in oil production was not addressed. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with AEO2001 Technology Assumptions)
29 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Scenarios of U.S. Carbon Reductions: Potential Impacts of Energy Technologies by 2010 and Beyond, ORNL/CON-444 (Washington, DC, September 1997); Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Office of Transportation Technologies, OTT Program Analysis Methodology: Quality Metrics 2000 (November 1998); J. DeCicco and M. Ross, An Updated Assessment of the Near-Term Potential for Improving Automotive Fuel Economy (Washington, DC: American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, November 1993); and F. Stodolsky, A. Vyas, and R. Cuenca, Heavy and Medium Duty Truck Fuel Economy and Market Penetration Analysis, Draft Report (Chicago, IL: Argonne National Laboratory, August 1999). (Return to Analysis of Strategies with AEO2001 Technology Assumptions)
Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future
30 Interlaboratory Working Group, Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future, ORNL/CON-476 and LBNL-44029 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, November 2000), web site www.ornl.gov/ORNL/ Energy_Eff/CEFOnep.pdf. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
31 Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 2001, DOE/EIA-0383(2001)(Washington, DC, December 2000), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/index.html. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
32 At this time, emissions limits on cogenerators are not represented. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
33 Interlaboratory Working Group, Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future, ORNL/CON-476 and LBNL-44029 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, November 2000), web site www.ornl.gov/ORNL/ Energy_Eff/CEFOnep.pdf. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
34 Energy Information Administration, Residential Energy Consumption Survey 1990 and 1997, DOE/EIA-0321. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
35 Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 2001, DOE/EIA-0383(2001)(Washington, DC, December 2000), pp. 216-217. Because energy investments for shell improvements are not computable, energy savings from these improvements have been removed from the best available technology case to allow for a comparison of the best available technology case in AEO2001 and the CEF advanced case. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
36 A. Hinge, M. Suozzo, T. Jones, D. Korn, and C. Peverell, Market Transformation for Dry-Type Distribution Transformers: The Opportunity and the Challenges, Proceedings of the 2000 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings/6.191 (Washington, DC; American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, August 2000). (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
37 Interlaboratory Working Group, Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future, ORNL/CON-476 and LBNL-44029 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, November 2000), Appendix A1, pp. A-1.14 and A-1.16, web site www.ornl.gov/ORNL/Energy_Eff/CEF-A1.pdf. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
38 Ibid. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
39 Ibid., p. A-1.13. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
40 Interlaboratory Working Group, Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future, ORNL/CON-476 and LBNL-44029 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, November 2000), Appendix B-2, web site www.ornl.gov/ORNL/Energy_Eff/CEF-B2.pdf. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
41 Energy Information Administration, NEMS Industrial Model: Modeling Energy Efficiency Standards for Boilers and Motors (Arthur D. Little, Inc., April 1995), and web site www.oit.doe.gov/factsheets/steam_challenge/pdfs/boiler.pdf. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
42 Energy Information Administration, Outlook for Biomass Ethanol and Production and Demand (Washington, DC, April 2000), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/biomass.html. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
43 MTBE is a widely used gasoline blending component, initially added as an octane enhancer and now used to meet oxygen requirements in reformulated gasoline. There are now concerns about MTBE contamination of water supplies. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
44 Overnight costs are the costs of a new generating unit without including interest charges, contingencies, and overruns. Thus, they represent the costs if the unit could be built “overnight.” (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
45 Vision 21 is the research and development program for advanced coal and natural gas generating technologies. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
46 Energy Information Administration, Impacts of the Kyoto Protocol on U.S. Energy Markets and Economic Activity, SR/OIAF/98-03 (Washington, DC, October 1998), web site www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/kyoto/kyotorpt.html. (Return to Analysis of Strategies with Policies from Scenarios for a Clean Energy Future)
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